Five Years of Online Learning Research in New Zealand: A Review
Bulletin of Information Technology Research. Vol 1, Issue 1 (June 2003). ISSN 1176-3108.

Sue Baker
ICT Coordinator
Thames High School
Thames

Bruce Ferguson & Malcolm Roberts
Department of Information Technology
Waikato Institute of Technology
Hamilton, New Zealand

Kay Fielden
School of Computing and Information Technology
UNITEC
Auckland, New Zealand
kfielden@unitec.ac.nz

Abstract

This review paper explores research trends in online learning research in New Zealand over the period 1998-2003. Most online learning research in New Zealand is dominated by qualitative research conducted in familiar domains. Forty research papers were sourced from electronic databases, conference papers, and other academic publications. The research is also strongly influenced by a constructivist approach and a predominance of case studies and discussion papers were identified. The research tends to lack focus and is dominated by small research samples in many of the reports. As online learning is relatively new and there are few comparative studies within New Zealand, further research is needed in New Zealand to build a broad research database.

Keywords

Online Learning, Review, Research.

Introduction

For this review of online learning research in New Zealand forty research papers published since 1998 were sourced from electronic databases, conference papers, and other academic publications. In this paper research type and domain within online learning are classified.

The research papers studied will be classified by research type, qualitative or quantitative. Further classification of the qualitative papers will group them into subgroups. The authors recognise that this classification may be subjective in some cases. The papers will also be categorised into knowledge claim categories according to Creswell's four distinct knowledge claims (Cresswell, 2002).

Online research in New Zealand is still in the early stages. This is reflected in abundance of case studies that only seek to describe a particular situation. A literature map will be used to organise the current research into appropriate areas. From this gaps will be identified for possible future research. Suggestions for further research will be made in the "Future directions" section of this paper.

Online Learning Defined

The Centre for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning (2003) defines Online Learning as "a subset of flexible teaching and learning that seeks to provide greater access to learning for all students." It is within this context that online learning is researched. Research should be focussed towards analysing online learning and exploring ways to improve the delivery.

The reviewed research into online learning usually involves the study of people; hence it is expected that the qualitative approach will be dominant. Creswell states that the qualitative paradigm "is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural setting." (1994, p. 1-2) This contrasts with the quantitative paradigm which Creswell states is " an inquiry into a social or human problem, based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analysed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether the predictive generalisations of the theory hold true." (1994, p.2) As can be seen, the quantitative approach is more concerned with collecting data and analysing the data to prove or disprove a theory. Researchers in the education field tend to assess learners by observations, interviews and questionnaires, so it is expected that the quantitative research method play a lesser role in online research.

Qualitative research often dominates educational research, perhaps because learning happens within a human activity system and assessment of learning is usually by means of observation, interviews or questionnaires.

Classification of online learning Research in New Zealand

Thirty-three of the forty articles reviewed on online learning in New Zealand, used a preponderance of qualitative methods. In this particular sample this is understandable because of the very nature of online learning that is concerned with human reactions and responses, teaching and learning. The social science end of the research spectrum (certainly the education section of it, where many of the researchers are practising teachers rather than trained researchers) is more likely to involve qualitative methods. The majority subgroup research method within these references was Case Study, which, in its description of a bounded situation, is always likely to use qualitative methods, according to Stake (2000). Of the seven remaining studies, two were clearly quantitative in nature, two used a mixed method approach (Creswell, 2003) and three were literature reviews, which attempted neither qualitative nor quantitative analyses.

Figure 1: Research Types Subgroups of Qualitative Research

Within the thirty-three papers that made up the qualitative research, six subgroups were identified. Two of these subgroups between them accounted for 60% of the research papers: case studies (12 papers) and discussion papers (12)(Table 1). Experience surveys accounted for a further two, action research and ethnographic research accounted for one each. The remaining subgroup, implementation, was researched in 5 papers. Because of the cyclical nature of the topic being researched (i.e. teaching similar material across different semester groups). Only one action research study consisting of just one cycle of action research is included in this particular sample of 40 papers reviewed. Action research, by its cyclic nature, precludes research projects that are required to be completed over short time periods.

Case studies are further categorised by Stake (2000) into three subgroups: intrinsic, in which a case is studied for its own intrinsic value, and not necessarily to determine any principles that may apply in other cases; collective, in which a number of cases are studied together in order to obtain a better understanding of a more general set of principles; and instrumental, "if a particular case is examined mainly to provide insight into an issue or to redraw a generalisation" (p.437). The case studies in our sample were all instrumental in terms of Stake's definitions.

Table 1: References by Subgroup within Type

It was discovered that subgroups do not always sit neatly side-by-side. They often overlap or have "fuzzy" boundaries, so that categorisation at times has been arbitrary. This is demonstrated most clearly by the subgroup of 'discussion paper'. Of the twelve so categorised, seven of them had many of the elements of a literature review, yet they were comprehensive only up to a point, which was to bear out their stated position or argument (see, for example, Moore & Nichols (2002) on Learning Objects). Another five had their basis in the writers' experiences, having elements of case study about them, perhaps along the lines of Stake's collective definition (ibid, p.437), yet the prime focus was not on case studies as such, rather that the case study element was there to back up the writers' point of view (see, for example, Young & McSporran (2002a) where they use information from a number of different computer classes).

In just these few examples, it can be seen how elements of literature review, case study and opinion piece can be found in discussion papers, and judgement is required for subgroup classification.

Knowledge Claims

Creswell (2003) describes four distinct knowledge claims or assumptions made by the researcher prior to research beginning. These are postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory and pragmatism. It is useful to identify the assumptions that researchers are making about their research to gain an understanding of the research being undertaken in this area. According to Creswell (2003) the postpositivist will look at the causes to explain an effect or outcome. The research will be divided into small discrete sections. Of the two quantitative research papers, one demonstrates postpositivist assumptions while the other has a leaning towards a constructivist paradigm.

Figure 2. Research Locations

Qualitative research usually has a leaning towards a constructivism knowledge claim (Creswell, 2003). The constructivist perspective constructs meaning or develops a theory as the research progresses. The majority of the papers reviewed fall into this category. Researchers using an advocacy/participatory approach seek to achieve some form of action, possibly with a political agenda, as a result of the research. In a pragmatic approach the researcher views the problem as the main point rather than the methods used.

In many of the research papers, particularly the case studies, the researcher had a close relationship with the people he/she has studied, either as the tutor or as an employee in the educational institution. Creswell (1994) states that using the qualitative approach the researcher interacts with those people, whether in the form of an interview, observation or actually running the program for the students. Examples of this are, Brown, Riley & Santos (1999), Clayton (2002) and Dewstow, McSporran & Young (2001). Also relating to this is that some research papers could, according to Creswell, be "value-laden and biased" (1994, p. 5), which can lead, in the authors' opinion, to a lack of rigour. Some researchers work in the online learning field and it is in their interest to produce research that is positive about online learning. This leads to some papers like that by Paynter (2002b), The role of multiple choice questions in e-learning, which essentially was a complimentary description of Cecil, the online learning platform used at Auckland University, rather than an in-depth investigation on multiple choice questions.

The language of many of the research reports tended to be informal, particularly those describing case studies. The author's personal voice comes through, again, as a result of the researcher being actively involved with the online learning activity. Informality is much more likely to be found in qualitative research where the researcher is more subjectively involved in the research and its outcomes.

Figure 3: The Data Gathering Method

The process of the qualitative research is inductive: that is, the researchers are inquiring how, why and what is happening, rather than proving a theory (as would be the case with quantitative research). Much of the research using the qualitative paradigm is situation specific: that is, the research is conducted upon a specific group of learners using a particular platform where the content is provided in a particular way. The results from one qualitative study are not necessarily applicable to other situations.

To analyse the available research on a topic, Creswell (2003) suggests the use of a literature map. This allows the researcher to organise the current research into appropriate areas and to identify any obvious gaps. It also allows the researcher to see the connections between possible future research and current research.

In the map, shown below in Figure 3, research on online learning has been divided up into general research, research on the structure of online courses, the evaluation of online courses and research on interaction and communication in online courses. These categories have been further divided up into appropriate groups. Recognising that the categorising of each paper is a personal judgement, it appears that the majority of research being carried out in New Zealand is on the evaluation of current situations. This is to be expected, as many institutions are presently moving into online or flexible learning opportunities for their students. Researching the process of changing is relevant in these situations.

In the past few years the research on online learning in New Zealand has been increasing at a rapid rate. In the papers reviewed for this paper there were 4 research papers from 1999, 3 from 2000, rising to 6 in 2001 and 27 in 2002. With the increases in opportunities available to students to learn online these numbers are expected to rise further.

There has been extensive research on planning online programmes (Donald et al (2002), Johnston (2002), Sheridan et al (2002), Young & McSporran (2002a), Manford & Crawford (2002) , Halliday & Girvan (1999), Trewern & Fry (2002)), communication in online courses (Williamson & Nodder, 2002), Panko (2002), Northover (2002), Cooper (2002), Haynes (2002), Anderson (2002)) and the effects of change on staff and students (Wolfe (2001b), McSporran & King (2001), Moore (2002), Wolfe (2001a), Brown et al (1999), Newby-Fraser (2002), Walker & Gunn (2002), Gunn et al (2002), Kinshuk & Su (2002)).

Future Directions

From the literature map in figure 3 possible areas for future research can be identified, including links to current research papers. Areas for future research identified include the most effective ways of combining learning opportunities for students in a flexible learning environment including face-to-face, online course material, video links, discussion boards and so on. This would continue on from the work of Gunn et al (2002) and McSporran and King (2002). Another area that could be further developed is looking at how changing from a traditional course to a fully online or flexible learning course affects student learning. This would follow on from the work by Trewern and Fry (2002), Johnston (2002) and Cooper (2002). Williamson and DeSouza (2002) in their paper on discursive spaces have investigated the use of online discussion boards to provide for differing epistemologies and cultural differences in students. Research in catering for the cultural and learning differences of students with online or flexible learning courses is an area for future possible research. Along with Williamson and DeSouza (2002) this would also follow on from research by Brown et al (1999) and Johnston (2001).

This body of research, taken as a group, is not well-focused. The lack of focus comes about in the overall direction of research. It is difficult to discern much forward movement, with research building upon research (or if there is such research, it is not represented in this sample). Instead, case studies, particularly, are often inconclusive, such as this example from Johnson et al (2001):

"Although is may seem obvious to state that we need to rethink our models for how teaching and learning is done in online, or computer supported environments, there is still a lack of clarity about which models should be implemented." (p.185)

Similarly, Young et al (2000) say: "At time of writing, we have only partial data so few firm conclusions can be made" (p. 6). This may again be a function of the newness of much of this research. Johnson et al are promising further studies, and it may well be found that follow-up research does begin to produce some focus and directionality, providing meaningful and reliable data which is explicitly available both for classrooms and as a basis for later research.

In further considering the lack of focus, it is informative to look at exactly what sort of research is being done. The most common area is that of researching student perceptions of their online courses or teacher perceptions, or both. Papers with this as their main thrust numbered sixteen. A further nine papers were in the "how to" category: how to set up a website (Johnston, 2001), how to move from one Learning Management System to another (Manford & Crawford, 2002), how to introduce online learning to midwives (Wolfe, 2001a) and so on. Less common were papers on theoretical topics (six) and papers evaluating performance by use of student results (three, all incidentally involving just one group of researchers, Young et al (2000, 2002a, 2002b). Only one paper (Brimblecombe, 2000) attempted to research strategic issues.

The research in this area is of a "crazy patchwork" nature (irregular, and sewn together with no discernable pattern). Much of it is ad hoc, a by-product of existing teaching work, rather than research planned independently, and systematically worked through. There is no evidence of any large-scale longitudinal studies being implemented and survey samples are small. For example, Brown, Riley & Santos (1999) had only 20 participants, MacLaren & Shukla (1999) had 10, and Johnson, Bishop, Holt, Stirling & Zane had 6 (only one more than the number of authors of the paper!).

It is a pity that there is not more cohesion and direction in this area of research. The field is going to get bigger, and will be a very important part of most learning institutions' future strategic plans. What may be needed are one or more research centres of excellence for information technology applied to instructional technology, to provide some cohesion and direction to what is currently a very fragmented body of knowledge.

Conclusion

Research into online learning is dominated by a qualitative approach. Due the nature of the population studied and the type of questions being asked, it would be reasonable to expect qualitative research to continue to dominate because the research tends to be carried out by tutors involved in the Online Education field. They use the qualitative approach because they are interested in researching their own particular online course for further improvements, which suits the case study method.

The majority of papers used a constructive epistemology. According to Creswell (2003) qualitative research is usually either constructive or uses an advocacy/participatory perspective. There are a number of research projects that are conducted by researchers who are personally associated with the situation being studied. This could lead to some bias in the conclusions reached. The Action Research method would be more suitable here in order to eliminate bias.

Overall the research in New Zealand appears to be lacking in depth and in the main uses small sample sizes. Also online learning is a relatively new phenomenon, and as the online learning programmes mature the research will become more focussed. Lack of collaboration between Tertiary Institutions has also led to ad-hoc and scattered research that relies mostly on overseas literature for references. Research in catering for the cultural and learning differences of students with online or flexible learning courses in the New Zealand context is another area for future possible research. As our literature review has shown, the majority of research is using the qualitative method, more studies are needed using the quantitative and mixed methods approach to broaden the research platform.

It is a pity that there is not more cohesion and direction in this area of research. The field is going to get bigger, and will be a very important part of most learning institutions' future strategic plans. What may be needed are one or more research centres of excellence for information technology applied to instructional technology, to provide some cohesion and direction to what is currently a very fragmented body of knowledge.

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